The philosophy of the Renaissance is a phenomenon characteristic of Western Europe XIV-XVII centuries. The term "Renaissance" (also used the Italian version - the Renaissance) is associated with the conversion of thinkers to the ideals of antiquity, a kind of revival of ancient Greek and Roman philosophy. But the understanding of what antiquity is among people of the 14th – 15th centuries was somewhat distorted. This is not surprising: a whole millennium separated them from the time of the fall of Rome, and almost two - from the heyday of ancient Greek democracy. Nevertheless, the essence of the philosophy of the Renaissance - anthropocentrism - was gleaned from ancient sources and was clearly opposed to medieval asceticism and abstracted from all worldly scholasticism.
Background
How did the philosophy of the Renaissance begin? A brief description of this process can be started by mentioning that interest has appeared in the real world and the place of man in it. It happened by chance at this time. To the XIV century. the system of feudal relations has outlived itself. City government grew and developed rapidly. This was especially noticeable in Italy, where, since antiquity, the traditions of economic autonomy of large cities like Rome, Florence, Venice, Naples have not died out. Other European countries equaled Italy.
By this time, the dominance of the Catholic Church in all spheres of life began to weigh on people: the monarchs sought to cast off the influence of the Pope and come to absolute power, while the urban population and peasants were languishing under the burden of taxes on the needs of the clergy. A little later, this will lead to a movement for the reformation of the Church and the split of Western European Christianity into Catholicism and Protestantism.
XIV – XV centuries - the era of great geographical discoveries, when the world began to become more understandable and real, and all the worse fit into the Procrustean bed of the Christian scholasticism. The need to systematize natural science knowledge became obvious and inevitable. Scientists are increasingly loudly declaring the rational structure of the world, the influence on the processes of the laws of physics and chemistry, and not a divine miracle.
Renaissance philosophy (briefly): basic ideas and basic principles
What determined all these phenomena? The main features of the philosophy of the Renaissance are the desire to know the world through the natural sciences that originated in ancient Greece and were disrespectfully forgotten in the dark Middle Ages, attention to man, to such categories as freedom, equality, to the unique value of human life.
However, the specifics of the era could not but affect the course of development of philosophical thought, and in irreconcilable disputes with adherents of the scholastic tradition, a completely new outlook on the world was born. The philosophy of the Renaissance briefly mastered the foundations of the ancient heritage, but significantly modified and supplemented them. The new time posed a different question for man than 2000 years before, although many of them are relevant in all ages.
The ideas of the philosophy of the Renaissance were based on principles such as:
- Anthropocentrism of philosophical and scientific research. Man is the center of the universe, its basic value and driving force.
- Particular attention to the natural and exact sciences. Only through teaching and development can we understand the structure of the world, to know its very essence.
- Natural philosophy. Nature should be studied as a whole. All objects in the world are one, all processes are interconnected. To know them in all the variety of forms and states is possible only through generalization and at the same time through a deductive approach from the larger to the concrete.
- Pantheism is the identification of God with nature. The main goal of this idea was to reconcile science with the church. It is known that Catholics zealously pursued any scientific thought. The development of pantheism gave an impetus to such progressive directions as astronomy, chemistry (as opposed to pseudoscientific alchemy and the search for a philosopher's stone), physics, medicine (a deep study of the structure of man, his organs, tissues).
Periodization
Since the Renaissance covers a rather large time period, for a more detailed description it is conditionally divided into three periods.
- Humanistic - the middle of the XIV - the first half of the XV century. It was marked by a turn from theocentrism to anthropocentrism.
- Neoplatonic - the second half of the XV - the first half of the XVI century. It is associated with a revolution in worldviews.
- Natural Philosophical - the second half of the XVI - the first decades of the XVII century. An attempt to make adjustments to the established and approved by the Church picture of the world.
There are also such areas of philosophy of the Renaissance as:
- Political (developed in the Neoplatonic period), which is characterized by a search for the essence and nature of the power of some people over others.
- Utopian. The social philosophy of the Renaissance (coincides in time with the second and third periods) is somewhat similar to the political direction, but in the center of the search there was an ideal form of coexistence of people within the city and state.
- The Reformation (XVI – XVII centuries) is aimed at finding ways to reform the Church in accordance with new realities, preserving spirituality in human life, and not denying the primacy of morality over science.
General characteristics of periods
Today the term "humanism" has acquired a slightly different meaning than in the Renaissance. Under it is understood the protection of human rights, tolerance, charity. But for the philosophers of the Renaissance, this concept, first of all, meant that the center of the philosophical search is not God or the divine nature, but man and his earthly life. Thus, to summarize briefly, the philosophy of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance are different phenomena. They were interested in diametrically opposed issues and could not coexist side by side.
First ideologists
The first vehicles of humanistic ideas were Dante Alighieri, Francesco Petrarch, Lorenzo Valla, Giovanni Bocaccio. Their works in different ways, but quite clearly affirmed the anthropocentrism of the philosophy of the Renaissance, that is, the central place of man in the picture of the universe.
At first, humanism did not spread from the university department, but in private conversations with nobles and aristocrats. Scholasticism was the lot of the masses, or rather those who ruled the masses, the official doctrine, and humanism - the philosophy for the chosen narrow circle of the intellectual elite.
Polar dots - the philosophy of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It is possible to briefly imagine this in the statement that it was the first philosophers of the Renaissance who created the image of the dark Middle Ages that has been established for centuries as the dark dream of mankind. They began to turn to antique plots and images to illustrate their ideas. Humanists saw the task of philosophy as a return to the "golden age" of antiquity, and for this they launched activities aimed at popularizing the ancient heritage - translating the preserved examples of ancient Greek tragedy and comedy into noble Latin and even folk languages. It is believed that the first annotated translations of ancient texts made in the XV – XVI centuries laid the foundation for modern philological science.
Dante Alighieri - a bright representative of the period of humanism
To characterize the humanistic period in the history of the philosophy of the Renaissance, one cannot help but dwell in more detail on the biography of such a landmark figure for him as Dante Alighieri. This outstanding thinker and poet in his immortal work, The Divine Comedy, made man the central figure in the story. This is all the more interesting because the rest of the picture of the world remained the same as in the Middle Ages - the foundations of the Church and the postulate of divine providence have not yet been affected. But nevertheless, in the “Divine Comedy” a map of the Christian afterlife is drawn in detail and in detail. That is, man has invaded the realm of divine providence. Let only as a spectator, unable to intervene and influence the course of events, but a person is already present in the divine circle.
The Church appreciated this creation very negatively, even hostilely.
The purpose of man in the worldview of Dante is self-improvement, the pursuit of a higher ideal, but no longer in the renunciation of the world, as it seemed to philosophers of the Middle Ages. For this, “Divine Comedy” also paints all the prospects for the life of the soul after the death of a person, in order to push him to decisive actions in the fleeting earthly life. The author points to the divine origin of man with a common goal - to awaken his responsibility and thirst for the continuous enrichment of knowledge. The anthropocentrism of Renaissance philosophy briefly found its expression in Dante in the “hymn to the dignity of man”, which sounds in “Divine Comedy”. Thus, having believed in the highest destiny of man on earth, his ability to do great things, the thinker laid the foundation for a new, humanistic doctrine of man.
The development of ideas in the work of Francesco Petrarch
The foundations of a humanistic worldview outlined by Dante found their development in the work of Francesco Petrarch. Although the genre orientation of his works (sonnets, cannons and madrigals) is strikingly different from the magnificent and sedate syllable of Dante, the ideas of humanism come to light with no less distinctness. Peru of this poet also owns a number of philosophical treatises: “On a solitary life”, “Invective against the enemy”, “On one’s and others’ ignorance ”, “ On monastic leisure ”, dialogue“ My secret ”.
On the example of Petrarch, it is very clearly visible that anthropocentrism was not only a new invention of philosophers, but acquired the features of a worldview, a system of cultural values. He openly opposed the scholastic doctrine, believing the destiny of the true philosopher to expose his own thoughts, rather than commenting on strangers. And among philosophical questions, Petrarch considered priority those that are concentrated around a person, his life, inner aspirations and actions.
The main idea of humanists is that a person has the right to happiness
Initially, in the works of Dante, the philosophy of the Renaissance (humanism) carried a call for self-improvement, asceticism and resistance to the blows of rock. But her follower of the first half of the XV century. - Lorenzo Valla - went further and called for active action to fight for his ideals. Among the philosophical schools of antiquity, he was most sympathetic to the Epicureans - this is evident in the dialogues “On Pleasure” and “On True and False Good”, in which he contrasts the followers of Epicurus and the Stoics. But the desire for sinful pleasures, characteristic of the Epicureans, here took on a different character. His idea of pleasure is purely ethical, spiritual in nature. For Lorenzo Valla, the features of the philosophy of the Renaissance are briefly reduced to a firm belief in the limitless possibilities of the human mind.
The main achievement of the philosophers-humanists of the XIV – XV centuries. that they defended the human right to development, self-realization and happiness in real earthly life, and not in the afterlife promised by the Church. God was thought to be good and kind, he personified the creative principle of the world. And a man created in the image of God, the only among living beings, endowed with intelligence and an active spirit, should strive to change the world and the people around him for the better.
Creative search touched not only content but also form: humanists resort to the purely secular genre of poetry, philosophical treatises, for example, antiquity, give the form of dialogue, develop fiction and revive the epistolary genre.
Social equality
The social philosophy of the Renaissance undermined the foundations of the medieval social hierarchy with a completely simple and natural appeal to the Holy Scriptures: all people are equal in their rights, for they are equally created in the image of God. The idea of the equality of all people will find more active participation among philosophers in the Enlightenment, and so far it has only been declared, but this was already a lot after the feudal Middle Ages. Humanists did not argue with the Church, but believed that the scholastics and demagogues distorted its teaching, and humanist philosophy, on the contrary, would help return to the true Christian faith. Suffering and pain are unnatural to nature, which means they are not pleasing to God.
At the second stage of its development, starting from the middle of the 15th century, the philosophy of the Renaissance briefly interprets in a new way the teachings of Plato, Aristotle and the school of Neoplatonists in accordance with the realities of the New Age.
Key Representatives of Social Equality
Among the thinkers of this period, Nikolai Kuzansky occupies a special place. He was of the opinion that moving to the truth is an endless process, that is, it is almost impossible to comprehend the truth. This means that a person is not able to contemplate the world around him to the extent that God allows him to do. And to understand the divine nature is also higher than human strength. The main features of the philosophy of the Renaissance are summarized in his works “A Simpleman” and “On Scientific Ignorance, ” where the principle of pantheism is clearly visible for the first time, since the unity of the world, according to Kuzansky, is concluded in God.
Directly to the philosophy of Plato and the Neoplatonists, the reader is referred to by the treatise "Platonic Theology of the Immortality of the Soul" by Marsilio Ficino. He, like Nikolai Kuzansky, was an adherent of pantheism, identified God and the world in one hierarchical system. The ideas of the philosophy of the Renaissance, which proclaimed that man is beautiful and like God, are also not alien to Ficino.
The pantheistic worldview reached its climax in the work of Pico della Mirandola. The philosopher imagined that God is the highest perfection, concluded in an imperfect world. Similar views already at the beginning of the XV century. revealed to the world the philosophy of the Renaissance. A summary of the teachings of Mirandola is that comprehension of the world is tantamount to comprehension of God, and this process, although difficult, but finite. The perfection of man is also attainable, for he was created in the image of God.
Pantheism. Pietro Pomponazzi
The new philosophy of the Renaissance, briefly described in this article, borrowed Aristotelian principles, which was reflected in the writings of Pietro Pomponazzi. He saw the essence of the world in constant forward movement in a circle, in development and repetition. The main features of the philosophy of the Renaissance echoed in his "Treatise on the Immortality of the Soul." Here the author provides reasoned evidence of the mortal nature of the soul, thereby arguing that a happy and fair existence is possible in earthly life and should be sought. This is how Pomponazzi looks briefly about the philosophy of the Renaissance. The main ideas that he professed were the responsibility of man for his life and pantheism. But the latter is in a new reading: God is not only one with nature, he is not even free from it, and therefore is not responsible for the evil that happens in the world, since God cannot violate the ordained order of things.
Anthem of Erasmus of Rotterdam
In the description of such a phenomenon as the philosophy of the Renaissance, it is briefly necessary to touch on the work of Erasmus of Rotterdam. It is deeply Christian in spirit, but moreover it presents a person, and all the more requires great efforts from him. This gives a huge responsibility in relation to the constant self-development and self-improvement of the individual. Erasmus ruthlessly denounced the limitations of scholastic philosophy and feudalism in general, setting forth his ideas on this subject in the treatise "Praise of stupidity." In the same stupidity, the philosopher saw the causes of all conflicts, wars and strife, which the philosophy of the Renaissance condemned in its very essence. Humanism also resonated in the writings of Erasmus of Rotterdam. It was a kind of hymn to man’s free will and his own responsibility for all evil and good deeds.
Utopian ideas of universal equality
The social directions of the philosophy of the Renaissance were most vividly embodied in the teachings of Thomas More, more precisely in his famous work “Utopia”, the name of which later became a household word. Pestilence preached the abandonment of private property and universal equality.
Another representative of the socio-political movement, Niccolo Machiavelli, in his treatise "The Sovereign" set forth his vision of the nature of state power, the rules of conduct of politics and the behavior of the ruler. To achieve higher goals, according to Machiavelli, any means are suitable. Someone condemned him for such illegibility, but he only noticed the existing pattern.
Thus, for the second stage, the most significant issues are: the essence of God and his attitude to the earthly world, human freedom and ideals of government.
Bright trace of Giordano Bruno
At the third stage (from the second half of the 16th century) of its development, the philosophy of the Renaissance turned to the world around a person, interpreting in a new way the rules of social morality and the laws of natural phenomena.
“Experiments” by Michel Montaigne are devoted to moral instruction, in which one or another moral situation is analyzed by examples and contains advice on proper behavior. Surprisingly, Montaigne, while not rejecting the experience of past generations in the field of such literature, was able to create a teaching that is still relevant today.
The iconic figure of natural philosophy of the XVI century. became Giordano Bruno. The author of philosophical treatises and scientific works, he, without denying the divine nature, tried to comprehend the essence of cosmogony and the structure of the Universe. In the work “On Cause, Beginning and One, ” the philosopher argued that the Universe is one (this was generally the central concept of his teaching), motionless and infinite. The general characteristic of the philosophy of the Renaissance by Giordano Bruno looks like the sum of the ideas of pantheism, natural philosophy and anthropocentrism of scientific research. He argued that nature is endowed with a soul, this is evident from the fact that it is constantly evolving. And God is the same as the Universe - they are infinite and equal to each other. The goal of human search is self-improvement and, ultimately, approaching the contemplation of God.
