A change in the natural environment that leads to a disruption in the normal functioning of the biosphere can be both anthropogenic (more often) and the result of natural disasters. A weak manifestation of an environmental problem is characterized by a degree of transformation of the landscape’s natural properties to 10%, an average degree of 10-50%, severe pollution - more than 50% of the change in landscape properties. Moreover, at present, most environmental problems are widespread and global, that is, go beyond the boundaries of individual countries and regions. Therefore, the United Nations, national governments, local governments, individual industries and households are involved in environmental protection and environmental issues. Work is ongoing at all levels.
Changes and expected trends
In September 2001, at a UN meeting, Chief Secretary Kofi Annan emphasized that in the next millennium the task of ensuring for future generations an environmentally sustainable society will be one of the most difficult. In his report, “We Peoples: The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century, ” not only the existing international environmental problems, trends of the 1970-1990s, but also the expected scenarios until 2030 were considered.
So, by 2000, only about 40% of the area of natural ecosystems was preserved. During 1970-1990 on land, the decline was at a rate of 0.5-1% annually. It is expected that the trend will continue throughout the first third of the twenty-first century and the situation will approach almost complete elimination of natural biosystems on land. Reduced, exceeding the natural indicator, the number of species of animals and plants. If this trend continues, in the next 20-30 years, about a quarter of all biological species will disappear. To date, there are already fourteen million species of extinct animals and plants in the catalogs.
In 1970-1990, the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere began to rise from tenths of a percent to several percent annually. Accelerated growth in the concentration of carbon dioxide and methane is expected due to high rates of economic development of states and a reduction in biological diversity. The ozone layer in the last third of the last century was depleted by 1-2% per year, the same trend continues today.
In the 1970-1990s, the desert area expanded to 60 thousand km 2 annually, toxic deserts appeared, from 117 thousand km 2 in 1980 to 180-200 thousand km 2 in 1989, the area of forests (especially tropical forests) was reduced), soil fertility decreased. Desertification is expected to accelerate by reducing land-based freshwater reserves and the accumulation of harmful chemicals in soils, forest area in the temperate zone will begin to decline, forests in the tropics will decrease at a speed of 9-11 million square kilometers, agricultural land will decrease, land will remain erosion and soil pollution tendency.
Statistics record a steady increase in the number of natural disasters and catastrophes from 133 in 1980 to 350 or more recently. At the same time, the number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions practically did not change, but floods and hurricanes began to occur much more often. After 1975, 2.2 million people died as a result of natural disasters. Two-thirds of deaths are caused by climate disasters. Trends will continue and intensify. At the same time, the quality of life is deteriorating, the number of diseases associated with environmental pollution is increasing, infant mortality is increasing, drug consumption, poverty and food shortages are increasing, and the immune status is decreasing.
Causes of Environmental Concerns
The problem of environmental protection is that it is almost impossible to cope with the causes of existing environmental problems. The aggravation and globalization of negative changes occur as a result of virtually uncontrolled economic growth, for which more and more natural resources are needed. Almost all economic activity is based on the use of the environment: forest and fish resources, minerals, soils, energy. Globalization has contributed to the aggravation of the environment by accelerating global economic growth, particularly in developing countries. The financial crisis has caused a regression, but fundamental changes in the long run will not happen.
Previously, the environmental factor also had a certain impact on world development, but until the 1960-1970s, the environmental impact of economic activity was limited to individual components. Subsequently, this influence spread to all components of ecology. Modern economic and social problems of environmental protection became relevant in the last decades of the twentieth century, and by the beginning of the current century their impact began to be felt especially sharply and became global. This scale is expressed in the impact on world development and on measures taken.
The main problems of environmental protection, humanity has faced even after the industrial revolution of the nineteenth century, especially after 1960-1970. By the beginning of the nineties, the world's population was producing the maximum allowable load. Currently, according to some scientists, the scale of consumption has exceeded the capabilities of the environment by 25-30%, and the environmental debt of mankind is estimated at $ 4 trillion. Given that most problems arise much later than the causes that caused them, the situation will not improve for a long time even if the negative impact on the environment is immediately stopped. This primarily concerns the thinning of the ozone layer and climate change.
Economic development is the main cause of environmental problems. Environmental protection does not save the situation, since all measures taken are not enough, and for some kind of positive effect to really come, they must be global. The causes of the problems are a sharp and not always justified increase in the expenditure of resources, the creation of weapons of mass destruction, the increasing unevenness in socio-economic development between developing and developed countries, the negative impact of production on the environment, and so on.
Today, the problems of nature management and environmental protection are provoking not only developed countries, but also rapidly developing states. For example, in 2007, China ranked first in the world in terms of CO 2 emissions (20.9% of global emissions), followed by the United States with 19.9%. Other major pollutants are the European Union (11.3%), Russia (5.4%), and India (less than 5%).
Global warming
An increase in average temperature has been observed since the seventies of the last century. Since the beginning of the XIX century, the average air temperature has increased by 0.74 degrees Celsius, about two-thirds of this value falls on the period after 1980. It was found that human activity affects the increase in temperature, a decrease in the amount of ice and snow in permanently frozen areas, an increase in the level of the World Ocean, and some abnormal climatic phenomena (ocean oxidation, heat waves, drought).
Countermeasures include mitigating the process by reducing carbon emissions. This can be achieved by using environmentally friendly energy sources and reducing the amount of raw materials consumed, using technological solutions to reduce emissions (for example, the creation of underground carbon dioxide storage). The main environmental problems in this regard are the need for significant investment, climate skepticism, ignoring the need to reduce production (as this leads to economic losses) and so on.
Climatic skepticism
The main problems of environmental protection are significant and are recognized by the majority of the population, but at the same time, part of the public does not trust the scientific data on global warming and the results of other studies related to the topic of ecology. Climatic skepticism in many countries of the world impedes political decisions aimed primarily at preventing global warming. Highlight trend skepticism, that is, non-recognition of the fact of a rise in temperature; attributive, that is, non-recognition of the anthropogenic nature of climate change; skepticism about damage, that is, the lack of recognition of the dangers of global warming. This is a significant contemporary environmental issue.
Ozone holes in the atmosphere
Significant thinning of the ozone layer from the second half of the twentieth century was promoted by the influence of the anthropogenic factor in the form of active emission of freons. For the first time, an ozone hole with a diameter of more than 1000 kilometers was discovered in 1985 over Antarctica. Scientists have found that this enhances the penetration of ultraviolet solar radiation. This provokes an increase in mortality among marine animal plants, an increase in the incidence of skin cancer in humans, and damage to crops.
In response to the studies, the Montreal Protocol was developed that sets the time frame during which ozone-depleting substances should be removed from production and removed from use. The protocol entered into force from the beginning of 1989. Most countries have replaced chlorine and bromine-containing freons with other substances that do not react with ozone. But a rather large number of destructive substances have already accumulated in the atmosphere, which will have a negative impact for decades, so the process will stretch for many years.
Despite the restrictions imposed by the Montreal Treaty, in some countries (in particular, the Asian region) air emissions are produced by unregistered industries. This is a significant problem for ecology and environmental protection. It has been established that emission sources are located between China, Korea and Mongolia, somewhere in East Asia. Environmentalists obtained recognition from Chinese manufacturers that they use illegal substances in the production, but failed to bring anyone to justice.
Radioactive waste disposal
Hazardous waste must be collected, modified and disposed of separately from other types of raw materials. Before disposal, such waste must be sorted according to the degree of radioactivity, form and decay period. Subsequently, they are processed by pressing and filtering, evaporating or burning, liquid waste is fixed or vitrified, placed in special containers with thickened walls made of special material for transportation to the place of permanent storage.
The problem of protecting the environment from the negative impact of radioactive waste is the unprofitability of this sphere due to the high cost of handling this type of raw material. It is very economically unprofitable for manufacturers to properly dispose of hazardous waste, so that it is simply dumped into landfills or waste water. This causes pollution of the lithosphere and hydrosphere, which causes a decrease in biological diversity, drainage of soils, a decrease in the area of forests and agricultural land, and so on.
The possibility of a nuclear winter
Hypothetical radical climate change as a result of a nuclear collision is considered a real threat. It is assumed that as a result of the explosion of several hundred ammunition, the temperature will drop to the Arctic. The theory was first expressed by G. Golitsyn in the Soviet Union and K. Sagan in the States, modern calculations and computer simulations show that nuclear war can really give an unprecedented climate effect, which is comparable to a small ice age.
Thus, the likelihood of a nuclear strike is not only a significant political, social and legal problem, but also an environmental problem as well. The USA is the only state at the moment that has used nuclear weapons in real military operations, but experts, given the current conditions and the situation on the international scene, call not only the States, but also other NATO countries, the PRC, and the DPRK potential rivals in a nuclear war. The possibility of destroying nuclear facilities in Pakistan, Iran, and the DPRK is currently being discussed in America, and the North Korean leader has repeatedly threatened to build up a nuclear program. The problem is the unpreparedness of states for cooperation and real, not nominative, peace.
Oceans: real problems
Environmental protection in Russia touches upon the problems of the oceans: water is polluted by oil products, cargo transportation may result in a ship’s wreck, harmful substances get into the water due to natural disasters (four ships sank in the Kerch Strait during a storm, two ran aground, two tankers were damaged, and the damage amounted to 6.5 billion rubles), leakages occur during production from wells, sewage is a dangerous pollutant, an increase in the mass of phytoplankton (flowering water) may threaten a decrease in capacity ecosystems to self-regulation (in Lake Baikal, for example, unusual algae have abnormally grown due to the extensive collection of harmful chemicals by treatment plants).
Global measures to save the oceans include:
- The development of carbon pollution quotas.
- Promoting a greener economy in developing countries. The economic problem of environmental protection is the lack of funds and the reluctance of developing countries to spend part of their income on ensuring the stability of ecosystems. Therefore, the world community needs to support an initiative that is environmentally friendly, allocate funds to ensure environmental protection, etc.
- Enhanced capabilities for scientific monitoring of the state of the oceans and coastal areas, development of new monitoring technologies.
- Promoting the development of responsible fisheries and aquaculture as part of national environmental policies.
- Elimination of deficiencies in the legal regime of the high seas and introduction of necessary amendments to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea.
- Assistance (subsidies and the like) for conducting private research on industrial acidification of the oceans, finding ways to adapt and mitigate the effects of pollution.
Mineral Reduction
Over the past decades, about half of all oil discovered by mankind has been pumped out. The achievement of such a high pace was facilitated by the incredibly rapid development of technology and science. With each decade in the twentieth century, the volume of research activity increased, geophysical methods and the geological exploration process were constantly improved, and the number of scientists dealing with similar issues increased. For many countries, oil is at the core of the economy, so reduction in pumping is not expected.
Extraction and processing of minerals is a gold mine, so many entrepreneurs simply do not care about the environmental situation on a global scale. In short, the problem of environmental protection in the issue of reducing useful minerals is the factor of loss of economic benefits. In addition, production is carried out with the formation of a huge amount of production waste; it is characterized by a significant technogenic impact on almost all geospheres. It is the mining industry that accounts for more than 30% of air emissions and over 40% of disturbed lands, 10% of wastewater volumes.
Energy and Ecology
The search for alternative sources is one of the solutions to environmental problems. Energy has a negative impact on the biosphere. For example, when fuel is burned, substances are produced that destroy ozone protection, pollute soils and water resources, slowly contribute to global climate change, cause acid rain and other climatic anomalies, and TPP emissions contain a large amount of heavy metals and their compounds. Energy and environmental issues are directly related.
The solution to the problems is the search and use of alternative sources, primarily the sun and wind. At the same time, emissions of harmful substances are significantly reduced. Кроме того, значимым фактором улучшения экологической ситуации являются использование и улучшение очистительных устройств, экономия электроэнергии (в бытовых условиях и на производстве этого можно добиться простыми методами улучшения изоляционных свойств сооружений, заменой ламп накаливания на светодиодную продукцию и так далее).
Загрязнение почв
Загрязнение почв характеризуется превышением природного регионального фонового уровня содержания в почвах вредных химических веществ. Экологическую опасность представляет поступление различных химикатов и других загрязняющих веществ из антропогенных источников. Кроме того, источниками загрязнения являются коммунальные хозяйства и промышленные предприятия, транспорт, сельское хозяйство, захоронение радиоактивных отходов.
Проблемой развития охраны окружающей среды является обеспечение охраны почв. Именно стремление получить от почвы наибольшие ее возможности привело к деградации почвенного плодородного состава. Чтобы помочь земле вернуться к природному балансу и естественному равновесию, необходим контроль производства сельхозпродукции, промывка орошаемых участков, закрепление почв путем корневой системы растительности, распашка земель, полосное чередование культур, высадка защитных лесополос, минимизация обработки почвы. Целесообразно использование только безопасных удобрений и применение природных методов борьбы с вредителями.
В этой сфере тоже имеются экономические проблемы охраны окружающей среды. Многие методы требуют значительных капиталовложений. Государство обеспечивает льготы и субсидии фермерам, которые следуют правилам охраны окружающей среды, но этого не всегда оказывается достаточно. Например, чтобы определить реальную необходимость внесения удобрений, нужно предварительно провести химический анализ почвы, а это очень дорогостоящая процедура. Кроме того, подобный анализ проводится далеко не каждой лабораторией - это другая проблема охраны окружающей среды. Кратко говоря, чтобы остановить процесс загрязнения почв, нужно не только принимать правильные меры, но и обеспечивать их на всех уровнях (не только национальном, но и местном).
Мероприятия по охране природы
Охраной природы называется совокупность мероприятий по сохранению, разумному использованию и возобновлению природных ресурсов и естественной среды. Все мероприятия в этой сфере можно разделить на естественнонаучные, экономические, административно-правовые и технико-производственные. Осуществляются эти меры в международном масштабе, общегосударственном или в пределах отдельного региона. На первых этапах формирования представлений о необходимости природоохранных мер они предпринимались только на территориях с уникальными биосистемами. В дальнейшем проблемы в области охраны окружающей среды усугубились, потребовали решительных мер, регулирования расходования природных ресурсов в нормативно-правовых актах.
В России первые комиссии, занимавшиеся охраной природной среды, были созданы после революции. Новый период активизации деятельности по охране природы пришелся на 1960-1980 годы. Первое издание «Красной книги» вышло в свет в 1978 году. В перечне содержались данные об исчезающих видах, которые встречаются на территории Советского Союза.
В 1948 году был создан Международный союз охраны природы - неправительственное объединение, включившее большое государственных и общественных организаций. Начиная со второй половины двадцатого века в целом развернулось активное сотрудничество в сфере охраны окружающей среды на международном уровне. Проблемы обсуждались в рамках Стокгольмской конференции, в соответствии с решениями которой была создана Программа ЮНЕП. Программа спонсирует развитие солнечной энергии, проект по охране болот на Ближнем Востоке, комиссия публикует отчеты, большое количество информационных бюллетеней и докладов, разрабатывает экологическую политику, обеспечивает коммуникации и так далее.
Экологическая политика
Экологическая политика, то есть определенная совокупность намерений и принципов деятельности для достижения целей и задач, поставленных экологическим планом, стремится к решению экономических и социальных проблем охраны окружающей среды на глобальном, государственном, региональном, местном и корпоративном уровнях. Но разработка плана мероприятий - это далеко не все.
Проблемы энергетики и охраны окружающей среды, экологии и экономики должны решаться на всех уровнях. Так, если рядовые производители и домохозяйства не станут следовать основным пунктам национальной экологической политики на местном уровне, никакого положительного эффекта ожидать не придется.
Можно выделить следующие методы экологической политики:
- Административно-контрольные: стандартизация, лицензирование хозяйственной деятельности, экологическая экспертиза, экологический аудит, мониторинг, контроль за соблюдением законодательства в области охраны природы, целевые программы и так далее.
- Технико-технологические. Охрана окружающей среды и решение экологических проблем осуществляются в ходе применения специальных технико-технологических средств и решений. Это улучшение технологий, внедрение новых способов производства и так далее.
- Законодательно-правовые (проблемы охраны окружающей среды на законодательном уровне): разработка, утверждение и осуществление на практике положений нормативно-правовых актов, регулирующих отношения между обществом и природой.
- Экономические: создание целевых программ, налогообложения, системы платежей, льгот и других стимулов, планирование природопользования.
- Политические методы: акции и другие действия политиков, направленные на защиту окружающей среды.
- Воспитательно-образовательные. Подобные методы способствуют моральной ответственности граждан и формированию верного экологического сознания. Это является необходимым элементом экополитики.
Важную роль в формировании и насаждении экологической политики для решения проблем охраны окружающей среды играет государство. На государственном уровне координируется деятельность всех субъектов, проводится контроль за соблюдением нормативно-правовых актов в области охраны природы и так далее. Хозяйственно-экономические субъекты, в соответствии с нормативно-правовыми актами, обязаны заботиться о сохранении природы, учитывать воздействие процесса производства на окружающую среду, устранять вероятные вредные последствия. Политические партии в рамках экологической политики способствую формированию экологического сознания, разрабатывают собственные стратегии и в случае победы на выборах реализуют их на практике. В принятии значимых для экологии решений также играют исключительную роль общественные организации.
