Even in ancient Greece, people tried to unravel the secrets of the universe, and scientists based on observations put forward hypotheses and proved their guesses by the method of scientific measurements. Throughout the history of mankind, the development of science has continued unceasingly up to the present day. Modern sciences are built on theories, which, in turn, have their own structure. Let's study their device and highlight the main functions.
The concept and structure of scientific theory
A scientific theory is a collection of general knowledge about various phenomena or events that occur in nature or society. This concept also has other meanings. Theory is a collection of canons and principles developed on the basis of numerous observations and experiments that confirm the idea put forward, describe the nature of phenomena and studied subjects. Moreover, scientific theory, thanks to methods for identifying patterns, helps to anticipate future events. Scientific theory is inextricably linked with philosophical views, because the worldview of a scientist or researcher largely determines the boundaries and development paths of science as a whole.
The structure of scientific theory includes tasks that need to be addressed. For this reason, any theory implies the need for practice, due to which the goals are achieved. It should be remembered that scientific theory does not always describe only one sphere of nature, often it covers several areas and contains a system of generalized knowledge. Take for example the theory of relativity of Einstein, it is not limited to one natural phenomenon - light, on the contrary, this theory applies to absolutely all objects in our universe. Below we will analyze in more detail what elements the hypothetical-deductive structure of scientific theory consists of.
What is science and how is it related to philosophy
Our planet and everything that is on it moves according to certain laws, which can be described using scientific methods. It is impossible to imagine the modern world without the development of science. All the knowledge that is available to mankind has accumulated over many centuries. Thanks only to scientific discoveries, our world is now the way we see it. The origin of science is associated with such a social phenomenon as philosophy (from the Greek. "Love of wisdom"). It is the philosophers and thinkers who are considered the first to lay the foundation of modern sciences. In ancient Greece, philosophers were divided into two groups. The first are the Gnostics, those who believed that the world around us is cognizable, that is, a person has unlimited possibilities for its complete study. The second, the agnostics, were not so optimistic, they believed that the laws of the world order could never be fully understood.
Science is a relatively new word in the Russian language; initially it denoted one specific subject. In the modern sense, science represents the whole system of knowledge and experience accumulated by mankind. Activities aimed at collecting information and analyzing the facts obtained can also be considered science. People who are engaged in science are members of the scientific community. One of the scientists who made a huge contribution to the development of science as a philosophy is the Russian academician Vyacheslav Semenovich Stepin. In his work “The Concept of the Structure and Genesis of Scientific Theory, ” Stepin took a completely new look at the problems of the philosophy of science. He created the concept of new methods of the theory of knowledge and revealed new types of civilizational development.
Philosophy of Scientific Theories
A few centuries ago, any theory was based on the principles of ancient philosophy, which called for the purification of the soul through contemplation of the world and its knowledge. However, New Time has opened up completely different views on the study of the phenomena surrounding us. New conceptual and ideological theories of scientific thinking were created, which in the last century were formed into the ideas of critical rationalism. Despite the new methods used in science, the basis remains the same: the mental and intuitive contemplation of the cosmos, stars and other celestial bodies is preserved. Scientific theory and its structure in philosophy played a huge role, because one could not exist without the other. All the thoughts of the ancient philosophers came down to the questions to which they found answers. The result of their search was facts and scientific knowledge that needed to be structured and systematized. For these purposes, scientific theories were created, which were not only an instrument for the development of science, but also an independent element that deserved close study.
The difference between theory and hypothesis
In studying the foundations and structure of scientific theory, the concepts of hypothesis and theory should be clearly distinguished. The following definitions are also very important for understanding our topic. So, as you know from the school curriculum, knowledge is that part of the intangible goods that mankind accumulates and transfers from generation to generation. From ancient times, people kept their knowledge in songs or parables, which were later sung by wise old people. With the advent of writing, people began to write down everything. Knowledge is closely related to the concept of experience. Many things can be called an experience: the impressions gained in the process of observation or activity, as well as the knowledge and skills that a person possessed as a result of labor. Scientific theory, its structure and functions make it possible to systematize the accumulated knowledge and experience.
Let's go back to our topic and look at the difference between a hypothesis and a theory. So, a hypothesis is an idea that is expressed on the basis of seen or gained experience. For example, you open a water tap, the more you deflect it, the stronger the flow of water increases. Therefore, you can hypothesize that the volume of streamlined water is directly proportional to the deflection of the tap, that is, the hypothesis is in the nature of reasoning or inference based on the phenomenon seen. A hypothesis is an assumption. The theory, on the other hand, is a system of knowledge that was not only obtained as a result of observations, but also was proved by measurements and repeated experiments. Moreover, the structure of scientific theory consists of laws and formulas that characterize and describe a particular phenomenon. It turns out that any scientific theory is a proven hypothesis supplemented by mathematical or physical laws.
Classification of scientific theory
Science studies absolutely all aspects of our life and covers almost all the phenomena and events occurring on our planet. It is very difficult to calculate the number of existing sciences, because some large areas of science branch into smaller ones. For example, the science of mathematics may include arithmetic, number theory, probability theory, geometry, etc.
Scientific theory is an integral part of any science, so you should pay attention to the study of its foundations. So, the classification and structure of scientific theories is very similar to the division of the subject sciences themselves (natural, philological, technical, social). According to science scientists, they can be divided into three types:
- Mathematical Theories. They are based on the general principles of mathematics, and as models they use the concepts of "ideal" objects. For example, an ideal ball rolls on a perfectly flat surface (in this case, the surface does not have resistance, although in reality there are no such surfaces).
- Descriptive scientific theories. They are often created on the basis of numerous experiments and observations, which as a result provide empirical data on objects. The most famous descriptive theories include the following: Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory, Pavlov's physiology theory, linguistic theories, as well as all classical psychology theories.
- Deductive scientific theories represent the basis, the basis of science. For example, the very first deductive theory fulfilled the task of founding mathematics. This is the work of Euclidean "Beginnings", which was built on axiomatic systems. At that time, the axiom was socially established norms with which it was impossible not to disagree. And already from these axioms-assertions the postulates of the theory followed. This type is called deductive, because the main method for the development of the theory is the use of logical conclusions from the main axioms.
Scientific theory and its logical structure may look different. Often, scientific theories are classified according to the subject being studied, that is, according to the object of study (natural ones study nature and the world; social and humanitarian ones are connected with a person and society). In other words, the type of theory is laid on the basis of the sphere of our nature that science is studying.
- Theories depicting the objective physical, biological, or social properties of subjects. These may include various theories related to anthropology, history and sociology.
- The second type of scientific theories is focused on the display of subjective characteristics of objects (ideas, thoughts, consciousness, feelings and emotions). Theories of such sciences as psychology and pedagogy can be attributed to this type.
However, psychologically oriented theories do not always belong to the second type. So, for example, sociocultural anthropology, depending on the methods prevailing in it, can relate to both types of scientific theories. For this reason, a scientific theory and its logical structure should be built on the basis of the methods that it uses, as well as the goals for which it is oriented.
The functions and significance of scientific theories
Before any science, regardless of its subjects studied, there are many tasks that need to be addressed. The great theoretical scientist Albert Einstein studied the goals of scientific theories from which their functions flow. It is important to understand that any theory should fulfill all the tasks described below. So, here are the main functions of scientific theories highlighted by scientists:
- Cognitive - that any theory should strive to discover new laws in the field under study. After all, it is the reflection of reality in formulations and laws that will provide a complete and clear picture of the occurring phenomena. What does it mean to know and understand the objects of interest to us? The cognitive or, as it is also called, the epistemological function of scientific theory is precisely the main method in the study of all the external and internal properties of these objects. The structure of scientific theory suggests that the cognitive function studies not only the qualities of objects, but also the relationships (relationships) between them and various natural phenomena or social processes.
- The systematizing function consists in the fact that scientific theory analyzes and classifies all accumulated knowledge and facts, and then on the basis of them structures one whole significant system. This function is considered continuous, because new observations lead to new facts, forcing scientists to improve scientific theories. In simple words, a systematizing (synthetic) function combines disparate scientific knowledge and builds a logical relationship between them.
- The explanatory function allows not only to formulate and describe the facts, but also to analyze, understand and rethink them. You must admit that it is impossible to call a person a scientist, only because he learned the accumulated scientific facts. Comprehension and a full understanding of the essence of phenomena - this is what is more important. And it is the explanatory function that helps us interpret natural phenomena and complex processes.
- In scientific theory (its structure and function), another significant role is distinguished - the prognostic one. Thanks to effective methods, which are more based on natural laws (for example, spring replaces winter, the growth of plants and animals, that is, all the repeating forms or combinations that form in nature), the prognostic function allows you to predict a number of events or processes. One of the oldest scientific theories in which this function is predominant is meteorology. Modern science has such advanced methods that it has become possible to predict the weather for several months in advance.
- The practical function is intended to facilitate the theory to such an extent that it can be applied in reality. It is difficult to imagine what the structure of a scientific theory could be if there were no practical benefits from its development.
Requirements for scientific theories (according to K.R. Popper)
One of the most famous and influential philosophers of the 20th century, who has a completely new look at the philosophy of science. He criticized the classical concepts of methods of cognition, and instead proposed to introduce a new structure of scientific theories, in which the principles of critical rationalism are central. Carl Raymond Popper is considered the founder of the epistemological theory of critical empiricism. The main idea of the theory is the following postulates:
- scientific knowledge should be objective, that is, not dependent on the opinion or judgment of one person or society as a whole;
- absolute knowledge (dogma) does not exist;
- any science must be criticized or refuted until the opposite is proved by empirical data.
The theory of K. Popper has become one of the most discussed, his works have been translated into many languages of the world. This philosopher created a new concept, according to which a theory that meets several criteria is more preferable. Firstly, she examines the object very deeply, therefore she reports the maximum amount of information. Secondly, a theory must have logical, explanatory, and tremendous predictive power. Finally, it must be tested by time, that is, it is necessary to compare the predicted theory with facts and observations.
What is a scientific theory?
If we talk briefly about the structure of scientific theory, then three main components should be distinguished: idea, as a basis; methods and tools for studying the object; formulations and laws characterizing the properties of the studied object.
Let's take a closer look at each element in order to fully understand what a scientific theory is. The main criterion of any theory is its depth, that is, the depth of the phenomena studied. If a theory belongs to a certain science, then it should reveal exactly those objects that are relevant to this science. For example, the theory of relativity is one of the most important branches of modern physics, therefore the subject of this theory is the element or the whole system of processes related to the science of "physics".
The structure of a scientific theory also includes a set of techniques and methods by which it solves many problems posed to science. The third component of any theory is the strictly formulated laws to which the objects of study obey. For example, in the "mechanics" section of the science of physics, there are not only descriptive characteristics of phenomena and objects, but also formulas and laws with which you can calculate unknown values of physical quantities.
Varieties of Scientific Theories
Scientific theory as the highest form of systematized knowledge has several directions. The theory is divided into types according to the principle of the science it studies. The structure of scientific theory does not change, while retaining all the important key elements. There are a huge number of theories that can be divided into the following varieties:
- biological - are considered one of the most ancient, since they arose in prehistoric times, they were certainly accompanied by medical facts about the human body;
- chemical theories - the first mention of alchemists dates back to the 4th century BC (representatives - scientists of Ancient Greece);
- sociological theories - combine not only the social system, but also the political aspects of states;
- physical - these theories laid the foundation for the development of modern technical sciences;
- psychological theories make it possible to take a fresh look at the human consciousness, at its soul.
This list can be continued for a long time, because not all theories are considered complete, some of them require further study.
Methods and methods of scientific theories
To solve any problem requires a set of specific actions or methods. In scientific theories, several types of techniques are distinguished with the help of which logical and deductive elements of theories are built. The elements of the structure of scientific theory are general logical and highly specialized methods.
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| Methods of theoretical knowledge |
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| General research methods and techniques |
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