Among the many gods of the Romans, Jupiter, the son of Saturn, was the supreme god associated with thunder, lightning and storms. The first inhabitants of Rome believed that the spirits of their ancestors were watching them, and they added to these spirits a triad of gods: Mars, the god of war; Quirin, the deified Romulus, who looked after the inhabitants of Rome; Jupiter, supreme god. By the time the republic emerged, Jupiter was revered as the greatest of all gods, but the remaining members of the old triad were replaced by Juno (his sister and wife) and Minerva (his daughter). The most important title of Jupiter was "Jupiter Optimus Maximus", which means "Best and greatest" and indicated his role as the father of the gods.
Temple on the hill
Like the Etruscans and Greeks before them, the Romans are known for building monumental temples in clearly visible places. The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, located on Capitol Hill in the heart of Ancient Rome, well reflected this tradition (today there is a square designed by the artist of the Renaissance Michelangelo). Unfortunately, neglect, reuse of stone for new construction and alteration of the site means that very little remains of the temple of Jupiter to study. However, its influence can be observed in many Roman temples that imitated it, which makes it perhaps the most important in terms of its cultural influence and design.
Current state and initial view
The remains of the temple include parts of the tuff foundation (a type of stone made of volcanic ash) and a podium, as well as some marble and terracotta architectural elements. Most of the structural remains can be seen on site (in their original setting) in the territory of the Palazzo Caffarelli, and the surviving fragments are in the Capitol Museum.
Based on the preserved parts of the archaic foundation, the podium for the temple probably had dimensions of about 50 x 60 m. Nevertheless, these measurements are somewhat speculative. At present, it can be assumed that the temple was quite similar to the plan of temples of the late archaic of the Etruscans, such as the Temple of Minerva in Veija (also called the Temple of Portoncho) - a high podium (platform) with a single front staircase leading to the deep pronaos (porch), consisting of three columns, with a hexagonal arrangement (six columns across). One of the defining features of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was its three-part (three-sided) inner space with three adjacent cells (rooms) for the three main deities worshiped in this temple (Jupiter, Juno and Minerva).
The earliest phase of the temple consisted of terracotta elements, including an acroteria (sculptures on the roof line) and a large terracotta statue of Jupiter controlling a quadriga (a four-horse chariot). Inside the temple was another image of Jupiter - a cult statue, allegedly created by the famous archaic sculptor Vulka from Weija. This statue was painted red and served as the basis for the tradition of painting the faces of Roman generals during officially sanctioned triumphs.
Unlike the modest terracotta (burnt clay) that was used to decorate the earliest versions of the temple, some Roman sources note that later reconstructions made during the Roman Empire contained more extravagant materials. Ancient authors, including Plutarch, Suetonius, and Ammian, described the temple as outstanding in quality and appearance, with a pentelic marble superstructure, gilded shingles, gilded doors, and a complex relief sculpture on the pediment.
History
Although the temple was mainly dedicated to Jupiter, it also had places to worship Juno and Minerva. Together, the three deities constituted the so-called Capitol Triad - a divine group significant to the Roman state religion. Jupiter, the Roman equivalent of Zeus, was the most significant of these deities.
Important date for Rome
The temple was reportedly completed around 509 BC. e. - the date itself is significant because it indicates the estimated year during which the Romans overthrew the monarchy (which was Etruscan, not Roman) and established a republican system of government. Thus, the temple was not only located in a prominent geographical location, but also was a constant reminder of the moment when the Romans defended their independence. This historic proximity to the founding of the Republic with the construction of the Temple of Jupiter may also have helped to support its central role in Roman religion and the practice of architectural design.
Destroyed and rebuilt
The building of the temple of Jupiter in Rome itself was destroyed and rebuilt several times in the republican and imperial periods, and there were several restorations along this path. First destroyed in 83 BC. e., during the civil wars in Sulla, the temple was re-consecrated and rebuilt in the 60s BC. Augustus claimed that he rebuilt the temple, most likely, as part of his construction program, which began during his rise to power in the first century BC. The temple was again destroyed in 69 BC. e., during the turbulent "year of the four emperors." Although it was restored by the emperor Vespasian in the 70s. e., he again burned out during a fire in 80 A.D. e. Emperor Domitian completed the final major reconstruction of the temple between 81 and 96. n e.
After the first century AD, the temple seems to have retained its structural integrity until Emperor Theodosius eliminated state funds for the maintenance of pagan temples in 392 AD (Christianity became the official state religion of the Roman Empire). After that, the temple was destroyed several times in the era of late antiquity and the Middle Ages. After all, in the sixteenth century BC, a large residence, the Palazzo Caffarelli, was built on this site.
Social function
The Temple of Jupiter of Capitoline in Rome was not just an ordinary religious building. From the earliest stages, the temple was also supposedly a repository of objects of ritual, cultural and political significance. For example, the Sibyll Oracles (books containing the Sibyl prophecy), as well as some military trophies, such as the shield of the Carthaginian general Hasdrubal, were kept at this place. In addition, the temple served as an end point for triumphs, a meeting place for the Senate, a place for joint religious and political performances, an archive for public records and a physical symbol of the supremacy and divine will of Rome.
Perhaps the best depiction of the Capitol Temple of Jupiter can be seen on the Sacrificial Board from the now-lost arch of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. On this relief, Marcus Aurelius is portrayed as the main priest, offering a sacrifice to Jupiter among the crowd of attendants. In the background is a temple with three doors, presumably the Temple of Jupiter of Capitol.
Influence
Although the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was built in the Etruscan style with the participation of Etruscan masters, it nevertheless serves as a starting point for the development of the Roman temple-building tradition, which often included local elements more broadly in the Roman pattern.
From the point of view of the history of architecture, the lasting importance of the temple of Jupiter can best be recognized by its influence on the construction of Roman religious buildings, from the last two centuries BC to the third century AD. Imperial temples throughout the empire, including the Temple of Portunus in Rome, Maison Carré in France and many Capitol (temples dedicated to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva) Roman colonies based in North Africa, demonstrate an obvious visual connection with the Capitol Temple. They are united by a common frontality, a deep front door and a rich sculptural decoration. Nevertheless, the influence of the Temple of Jupiter can also be seen in the general Roman approach to the design of architecture - a monumental scale, urban setting, luxurious decoration and impressive height. Together, these elements are the hallmarks of Roman temples and suggest that it was the starting point for what would become the universally recognized architectural sign of Roman rule over the Mediterranean world. In particular, the original Gallo-Roman temple of Jupiter was located on the spot where the Notre-Dame de Paris now stands.
