The concept of dialectics came to us from the Greek language, where this word denoted the ability to reason and discuss, elevated to the rank of art. Currently, dialectics designate such an aspect of philosophy, which deals with the development, different sides of this phenomenon.
Historical background
Initially, there was a dialectic in the form of discussions between Socrates and Plato. These dialogues became so popular with the masses that the very phenomenon of communication in order to convince the interlocutor turned into a philosophical method. The forms of thought in the framework of dialectics in different eras corresponded to their time. Philosophy in general, dialectics in particular, does not stand still - that which was formed in ancient times is still developing, and this process is subordinate to the features and realities of our everyday life.
The principles of dialectics as a materialistic science consist in determining the laws by which phenomena and objects develop. The main function of such a philosophical scientific direction is methodological, which is necessary for understanding the world in the framework of philosophy, science as a whole. The key principle should be called monism, that is, the declaration of the world, objects, phenomena having a single materialistic basis. This approach considers matter as something eternal, lasting, primary, but spirituality is being relegated to the background. An equally significant principle is the unity of being. Dialectics admits that through thinking a person can cognize the world, display the properties of the environment. These principles currently represent the foundation not only of dialectics, but of the whole materialist philosophy.
Principles: continuing the theme
Dialectics calls for considering universal relations, recognizes the development of world phenomena as a whole. To understand the essence of the general connection of society, mental features, nature, it is necessary to study each of the components of the phenomenon separately. This is the main difference between the principles of dialectics and the metaphysical approach, for which the world is a set of phenomena that are not interconnected.
Universal development reflects the essence of the motion of matter, independent development, the formation of the new. As applied to the process of cognition, such a principle declares that phenomena, objects should be studied objectively, in movement and independent movement, in development, self-development. The philosopher must analyze what are the internal contradictions of the object under study, how they develop. This allows you to determine what are the sources of development, movement.
The development dialectic recognizes that all the objects studied are based on opposites, based on the principle of contradictions, unity, the transition from quantity to quality. Already in antiquity, thinkers, attracted by the idea of the cosmos, represented the world as a calm whole, within which the processes of formation, change, development are continuous. Cosmos seemed to be both volatile and calm. At a general level, variability is well visualized by the transition of water into air, earth into water, fire into ether. In this form, the dialectic was already formulated by Heraclitus, who proved that the world as a whole is calm, but filled with contradictions.
Ideas development
Important postulates of dialectics, the main ideas of this section of philosophy were soon put forward by Zeno of Elea, who proposed talking about the contradictory nature of movement, the opposition of forms of being. At that moment, the practice arose of contrasting thoughts and feelings, multiplicity, unity. The development of this idea is observed in the research of atomists, among whom Lucretius and Epicurus deserve special attention. They considered the appearance of an object from an atom as a certain leap, and each object was the owner of a certain quality that was not characteristic of the atom.
Heraclitus, Eleatics laid the foundation for the further development of dialectics. It was on the basis of their fabrications that the dialectic of the sophists was formed. Having departed from natural philosophy, they analyzed the phenomenon of human thought, searched for knowledge, using the discussion method for this. However, over time, adherents of such a school hypertrophied the original idea, which became the basis for the formation of relativism, skepticism. However, from the point of view of the history of science, this period was only a short-term gap, an additional branch. The basic dialectic, considering positive knowledge, was developed by Socrates and his followers. Socrates, studying the contradictions of life, called for finding positive aspects from the thought peculiar to man. He set himself the task of comprehending the contradictions in such a way as to reveal absolute truth. Eristics, disputes, answers, questions, colloquial theory - all this was introduced by Socrates and subjugated ancient philosophy as a whole.
Plato and Aristotle
The ideas of Socrates were actively developed by Plato. It was he who, delving into the essence of concepts, ideas, proposed reckoning them to reality, some of its special, unique form. Plato urged to perceive dialectics not as a method of dividing the concept into separate aspects, not only as a way to search for truth through questions, answers. In his interpretation, science was a knowledge of existing - relative and true. To succeed, as Plato urged, contradictory aspects should be brought together, making up a whole that is common. Continuing the advancement of this idea, Plato formalized his works with dialogues, thanks to which we still have flawless examples of the dialectic of antiquity. The dialectic of knowledge through the works of Plato is also accessible to modern scholars in an idealistic interpretation. The author has repeatedly considered movement, peace, being, equality, difference, interpreted being as a separation, contradicting itself, but coordinated. Any object for itself is identical, for other objects too, it is at rest in relation to itself, in motion in relation to other things.
The next stage in the development of the laws of dialectics is associated with the works of Aristotle. If Plato brought the theory to absolutism, then Aristotle combined it with the doctrine of ideological energy, potency, applied it to concrete material forms. This was the impetus for the further development of philosophical discipline, laid the foundation for the realization of the real cosmos around humanity. Aristotle formulated four reasons - formality, movement, purpose, matter; created a doctrine of them. Through his theories, Aristotle was able to express the union of all the causes in each object, so in the end they become inseparable and identical with the thing. According to Aristotle, things capable of movement should be generalized in their individual forms, which is the basis for the self-movement of reality. This phenomenon is called the primary engine, independently thinking, at the same time belonging to objects, subjects. The thinker took into account the fluidity of forms, which made it possible to understand dialectics not as absolute knowledge, but possible, to some extent probable.
Rules and concepts
The basic laws of dialectics determine development. The key is the regularity of the struggle of opposites, unity, as well as the transition from quality to quantity and back. It is necessary to mention the law of negation. Through all these laws, one can realize the source, direction of movement, mechanism of development. The dialectic core is the law that declares that opposites enter into a struggle among themselves, but at the same time they are one. It follows from the law that every phenomenon, object is simultaneously filled from within with contradictions that interact, are one, but are in conflict. According to the understanding of dialectics, the opposite is such a form, a stage when there are exclusive, denying each other specific features, qualities, trends. A contradiction is the relationship of the parties to the confrontation, when one another not only excludes, but is a condition for its existence.
The formulated essence of the basic law of dialectics obliges us to analyze mutual relations through a formal logical methodology. It is necessary to prohibit contradictions, to exclude the third. This became a definite problem for dialectics at the moment when the contradictions studied by science had to be brought in accordance with epistemological approaches, that is, a doctrine that considers the process of cognition. Material dialectics emerged from this situation through the elucidation of the relations of logical, formal, dialectical.
Pros and cons
The contradictions that form the basis of the laws of dialectics are due to a comparison of statements, in the sense of which they are opposed to one another. In fact, they point to the fact that there is some problem, without going into details, but they are a start for the research process. Dialectics in the specificity of contradictions includes the need to determine all the intermediate links of the logical chain. This is possible when assessing the degree of development of the phenomenon, determining the mutual relations of internal and external contradictions. The philosopher’s task is to determine what type of concrete phenomenon is being studied, whether it can be called the main contradiction, that is, expressing the essence of the object, or it is not the main or such. In dialectics, the contradiction is entangled in connections.
In short, dialectics in the understanding of our contemporaries is a fairly radical method of thinking. Neo-Hegelianism, one of whose prominent representatives is F. Bradley, calls for the separation of dialectics, formal logic, indicates the impossibility of replacing one with another. Arguing their position, philosophers pay attention to the fact that dialectics is the result of human limitations, reflects the possibility of thinking that differs from logical, formal. At the same time, dialectics is only a symbol, but not very distinct in structure and form of thinking, otherwise called divine.
Around us and not only
A distinctive feature of our everyday life is the abundance of contradictions, repetitions, denials. This encourages many to apply the dialectic method to the cyclic processes observed by man in the surrounding space. But the laws of this field of philosophy are such that they significantly limit the scope of the phenomenon. Both reproduction and negation, as follows from dialectics, can be considered strictly at the level of opposing features of a particular subject. You can talk about development only when the original features opposing each other are known. True, the identification of such at the initial stage is a considerable problem, since the logical aspects are dissolved in historical premises, returns, negations often only reflect the result of the influence of an external factor. Consequently, the similarity in such a situation is nothing more than external, superficial, and therefore not allowing the application of dialectic methods to the object.
The impressive development of the phenomenon, the theory that it is a dialectic, was associated with the work on which the followers of Stoicism worked. Especially important milestones are the works of Clean, Zeno, Chrysippus. It was through their efforts that the phenomenon deepened, expanded. The Stoics analyzed the categories of thought and language, which became a fundamentally new approach to the philosophical trend. The doctrine of the word created at that time was applicable to the surrounding reality, perceived by the logos from which the cosmos is born, whose element is the person. The Stoics considered everything around them as a certain unified system of bodies, therefore many call them more materialists than any of the earlier figures.
Neoplatonism and the development of thought
Plotin, Proclus, and other representatives of the school of neoplatonism have often thought about how to formulate that this is dialectics. Through the laws and ideas of this branch of philosophy, they understood being, the hierarchical structure inherent in it, and also the essence of unity combined with separate numbers. Primary numbers, their qualitative filling, the world of an idea, the transition between ideas, the formation of phenomena, the formation of the cosmos, the souls of this world - all this in Neoplatonism is explained through dialectical calculations. The views of the representatives of this school largely reflected predictions about the imminent death of the world surrounding ancient figures. This is noticeable in mysticism, which dominated the arguments of that era, systematics, scholasticism.
In the Middle Ages, dialectics is a philosophical section, strictly subordinate to religion and the idea of one god. In fact, science became an aspect of theology, having lost independence, and its main axis at that moment was the absolute of thinking promoted by scholasticism. The adherents of pantheism went in a slightly different way, although their worldviews are also based to some extent on dialectic calculations. Pantheists equated God with nature, which made from the subject who arranged the world and the universe the principle of independent movement inherent in everything around us. Particularly curious in this regard are the works of N. Kuzansky, who developed dialectical ideas as a theory of perpetual motion, indicating the coincidence of the opposite, the minimum and the maximum. The unity of the opposite is an idea that was actively promoted by the great scientist Bruno.
New time
Different spheres of thinking in this period were subordinated to metaphysics, the views dictated by it. Nevertheless, dialectics is an important aspect of the philosophy of the New Age. This can be seen, in particular, from the statements of Descartes, who promoted the theory that the space around us is heterogeneous. It follows from the conclusions of Spinoza that nature itself is its own reason, and therefore, dialectics become necessary for the realization of freedom: understandable, unconditional, irreplaceable, not amenable to exclusion. Ideas, the appearance of which is caused by thinking, actually reflect the connections of things, at the same time, it is categorically unacceptable to consider matter as a kind of inertness.
Considering the categories of dialectics, Leibniz makes important conclusions. It was he who became the author of a new doctrine, which stated that matter is active, provides its own movement, is a complex of substances, monads, reflecting different aspects of the world. Leibniz first formulated the deep idea of dialectics, devoted to time, space, the unity of these phenomena. The scientist believed that space is the mutual existence of material objects, time is the sequence of these objects one after another. Leibniz became the author of a deep theory of continuous dialectics, which considered the close connections between what happened and what is currently being observed.
German philosophers and the development of categories of dialectics
Kant's classical philosophy of Germany is based on the concept of dialectics, which he perceives as the most universal method of awareness, cognition, theorizing of the surrounding space. Kant perceived dialectics as a way of exposing the intrinsic illusions caused by the desire for absolute knowledge. Kant has repeatedly talked about knowledge as a phenomenon based on the experience of feelings, justified by reason. Higher reasonable concepts, following Kant, do not possess such features. Consequently, dialectics allows one to reach contradictions, which are simply impossible to avoid. Such a critical science became the basis for the future, made it possible to perceive the mind as an element that is characterized by contradictions, and they cannot be avoided. Such reflections gave rise to the search for methods to cope with contradictions. Already on the basis of critical dialectics, a positive was formed.
