The most interesting and influential thinker of the 5th century BC was Socrates. This thinker lived in ancient Greece. The life and philosophy of Socrates (it is very difficult to describe briefly, but we will try to highlight key points) are inextricably linked, as you will see by reading this article. Since he was looking for genuine knowledge, and did not simply seek victory over his rival, Socrates used the same logical techniques as the sophists in his pursuit of truth. He questioned all things and took them for truth only after careful consideration, thanks to which this thinker is considered the first representative of critical philosophy. The philosophy of Socrates is briefly and clearly stated below and is presented to your attention.
Sources of study
Socrates, as a thinker, was well known in his day thanks to his oratory and social activities. He himself did not write anything, so when we study it, we rely only on the notes left by his students (in particular, Xenophon and Plato). Socrates biography and philosophy are summarized in their writings. The difficulty is that Plato was also a philosopher and often inserted his own theories into dialogues, which he presented as discussions between Socrates and his other contemporaries.
Nevertheless, it is generally accepted that, at least, the early dialogues of Plato give us an accurate idea of what the philosophy of Socrates is, briefly and clearly.
Eutifron: What is Piety
The Eutifron, for example, describes Socrates' sharply critical conversation with a self-confident young man. Finding that Eutifron is completely confident in his ethical rightness, even in the morally controversial case of the trial with his own father, Socrates asks him what “piety” (moral duty) is in his opinion. This is not just about a list of acts that can be called pious. Eutifron should give a general definition, covering the very essence of the concept of "piety." But every answer that the young man offers is thoroughly criticized by Socrates until Eutifron can no longer offer anything.
The approval of the gods
In particular, Socrates systematically refutes the assumption of Eutifron that the criterion of the correctness of a particular act is the approval of the gods. Firstly, the question of what is considered “right” always causes endless debate, and the gods often contradict themselves in this, just like people, calling this or that deed both good and bad. Socrates allows Eutifron to recoup (only to continue the discussion) and accepts the reservation that the gods must first become completely unanimous in this matter (note that this problem arises only in a polytheistic culture).
Second, and more importantly, Socrates makes a formal dilemma from a seemingly simple question: "Do gods love piety as such, or does piety become piety only because the gods love it?"
None of these two alternatives fits the definition of piety proposed by Eutifron. If the right deeds are pious only because the gods approve of them, then moral righteousness is arbitrary, completely dependent on the whims of the gods. If the gods love piety as such, it follows that there must be some undivine source of values known to us.
Difficult dilemma
In fact, this dilemma offers significant difficulties in trying to balance morality with external power. Consider, for example, questions with a similar structure: "My parents approve of this act because it is correct; or is my act correct because my parents approve of it?", "The state prohibits such behavior because it is ungodly; or is it ungodly because the state forbids it? " In the second alternative, in each of these cases the actions become right (wrong) only because some authority approves (does not approve) them. Thus, the choice has no rational justification, since it is impossible to attribute the undeniable wisdom of this external power. But in the first version, the government approves (or does not approve) some kind of behavior, because it is right (or wrong) in and of itself, regardless of it. That is, following this logic, we are able to independently distinguish between good and evil.
Thus, the philosophy of Socrates and Plato, summarized above, suggests casting doubt (if not denying) the progress in solving any philosophical problem. This method helps to eliminate errors in solving serious issues and calls for intellectual independence. The philosophy of Socrates is briefly and clearly revealed to us by examples.
The character of Eutifron, however, does not change, at the end of the dialogue he leaves the stage as self-confident as he was. Using the method of Socrates leads to the victory of reason, however, it may not convince those to whom it appeals.
"Apology"
Due to the fact that Socrates was not a supporter of the current regime, representatives of Athenian democracy accused him of undermining the state religion and seducing minors. The speech that he put forward in his defense is given in Plato's Apology and gives us a deeper understanding of the specifics of Socrates' approach to philosophy, his attitude to practical life.
Ironic modesty
Explaining his mission as a philosopher, Socrates quotes an oracle message that he is the most intelligent of the Greeks. This is followed by a series of ironic descriptions of the thinker's efforts to refute the oracle in conversations with the famous Athenians, who must certainly be wiser than him. After each such conversation, however, Socrates comes to the conclusion that he has the kind of wisdom that these people lack, namely the recognition of his own ignorance.
The philosophy of sophists and Socrates briefly
The purpose of such a doubt was to help people achieve true self-knowledge, even if it leads to unpleasant discoveries. Socrates' philosophy, briefly and clearly stated, always comes down to this doubt. Socrates turns the sophisticated methods inside out, using logical inconsistencies to show (and not create) the illusion of reality.
Devotion to truth
Even after he was found guilty by the court, Socrates refuses to renounce his beliefs and his method. He also refuses to accept expulsion from Athens and the demand to shut up, insisting that public discussion of the most important problems of life and virtue is an integral part of any human life. The philosopher prefers to die than give up his philosophy.
Even after he was sentenced to death, Socrates (philosophy is briefly presented above) calmly pronounces the last word - thinking about what the future holds for us all. Saying that the fate of man after death is unknown, he nevertheless expressed an unshakable faith in the power of reason, which he preached throughout his life and which his judges did not have. So from this position, it remains unclear who actually won the lawsuit.
The dramatic depiction by Plato of a man who prefers to face death, but does not renounce his beliefs, served as a prototype of future philosophers of antiquity, taking an example from this outstanding thinker. The philosophy of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle is briefly and broadly somewhat similar.
Criton: man and the state
Plato's description of the last days of Socrates was continued in Criton. While in prison awaiting execution, the philosopher continues to calmly reflect on serious issues that worried him while still at large. The main ideas of the philosophy of Socrates were briefly voiced by him here. Even the injustice of a sentence of judges does not cause bitterness or anger in a thinker. Friends arrive in prison with an impeccable plan of escape from Athens and living in voluntary exile, but Socrates calmly draws them into a reasonable discussion about the moral value of such an act, casting doubt on it.
Of course, Criton and the other students knew their teacher well, they had already come prepared for such a dispute and stocked up with arguments for their plan. Salvation will allow Socrates to fulfill personal obligations in life. Moreover, if he refuses to run, many will believe that his friends did not care enough about him and therefore did not organize an escape. Thus, in order to fulfill his obligations and maintain the reputation of friends, Socrates had to escape from prison.
