Peacekeeping operations are activities aimed at creating conditions conducive to lasting agreement. Studies generally show that maintaining calm reduces mortality among civilians and on the battlefield, and also reduces the risk of renewed hostilities.
The essence of peacekeeping operations
Within the group of Governments and the United Nations (UN), there is a common understanding that international advocates monitor and monitor processes in post-conflict areas. And they can help former combatants fulfill their obligations under peace agreements. Such assistance takes various forms, including confidence-building measures, mechanisms for the separation of powers, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law and socio-economic development. Accordingly, UN peacekeepers, often called blue berets or helmets because of their special helmets, may include soldiers, police, and civilian personnel.
The United Nations is not the only system that carries out peacekeeping operations. Non-UN forces include NATO missions in Kosovo (with the permission of the above authority) and Multinational Forces and Observers on the Sinai Peninsula or those organized by the European Union (for example, EU KFOR with UN permission) and African (missions in Sudan) Non-violent NGO peacekeepers have experience in real operations. These are, for example, non-governmental volunteers or activists.
Russian peacekeeping operations
Historically, the central principles of international peacekeeping were formulated by the Western powers in connection with their political and ideological dominance in international institutions. Including the United Nations (UN) family.
Only recently developing powers have entered this community. Including the peacekeeping operations of Russia and China, began to formulate their own policy to maintain harmony. And today, many actions are carried out in practice. Although the common goals in the understanding of Western countries and developing powers are similar, there are differences in emphasis. Recent events in Syria and Russia's active participation in peacekeeping operations have emphasized the mixed understanding that these two approaches adhere to.
Difference
For the United States and many European countries, the goal of conflict resolution is to protect individual rights and freedoms. And also in achieving a “democratic transition” by replacing authoritarian regimes with liberal-democratic alternatives. For Russia in peacekeeping operations, as well as for many other new powers, the goal of resolving conflicts and maintaining peace is to preserve and strengthen local government structures so that they can maintain the rule of law on their territory and stabilize the situation in the country and region.
The Western approach suggests that donor countries know better what to do in relation to local issues. While the goal of the ascending powers is much less dogmatic and recognizes the right of subjects to make mistakes along this path. This article discusses the approaches of the Russian peacekeeping operation, since they are determined theoretically and practically.
Cold War Peacekeeping
Following independence in India and Pakistan in August 1947 and the subsequent bloodshed following the Security Council, resolution 39 (1948) was adopted in January 1948 with the aim of creating the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP). The main goal is mediation in the dispute between the two countries over Kashmir and the related hostilities.
This operation was non-interference in nature and, in addition, it was entrusted with the monitoring of the ceasefire, signed by Pakistan and India in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. With the adoption of the Karachi agreement in July 1949, UNCIP controlled the ceasefire line, which was mutually observed by unarmed military people from the UN and local commanders on each side of the dispute. The UNCIP mission in the region continues to this day. Now it is called the “United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan” (MNMOGIP).
Since then, 69 peacekeeping operations have been authorized and deployed in various countries. The vast majority of these operations began after the Cold War. Between 1988 and 1998, 35 UN missions were deployed. This meant a significant increase over the periods between 1948 and 1978, which saw the creation and deployment of only thirteen UN peacekeeping operations. And not one between 1978 and 1988.
Significant Events
Armed intervention first appeared in the form of UN involvement in the Suez crisis in 1956. Extraordinary Forces (UNEF-1), which existed from November 1956 to June 1967, were, in fact, the first international peacekeeping operations. The UN received a mandate to ensure the cessation of hostilities between Egypt, Britain, France and Israel. This is in addition to monitoring the withdrawal of all troops from the territory of the first state. Following the conclusion of this conclusion, UNEF served as a buffer force between Egyptian and Israeli forces to monitor the conditions of the ceasefire and to promote the establishment of a lasting agreement.
Soon after, the United Nations launched a peacekeeping operation in the Congo (ONUC). It happened in 1960. Over 20, 000 troops participated in its peak, killing 250 UN personnel, including Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld. ONUC and the Congo peacekeeping operation itself were to ensure the withdrawal of the Belgian forces, which reaffirmed themselves after Congolese independence and after the uprising conducted by Force Publique (FP) in order to protect Belgian citizens and economic interests.
ONUC was also instructed to establish and maintain the rule of law (to help put an end to the rebellion of AF and ethnic violence), as well as provide technical assistance and training for the Congolese security forces. An additional function was added to the ONUC mission, in which the military was entrusted with maintaining the territorial integrity and political independence of the Congo. As a result, the separation of the mineral-rich provinces of Katanga and South Kasai occurred. Although many condemned the UN forces in this dispute, the organization more or less became the hand of the Congolese government. It was at that time that the military helped to stop the division of the provinces by force.
During the 1960s and 1970s, the UN created many short-term assignments around the world. Including the mission of the representative of the Secretary-General in the Dominican Republic (DOMREP), the Security Forces in Western New Guinea (UNIF), the Yemen Observer Organization (UNYOM). All this combined with longer-term operations such as the United Nations Armed Forces in Cyprus (UNFICYP), Emergency Operations II (UNEF II), Disengagement Observer Peacekeepers (UNDOF) and the Lebanese Interim Force (UNIFIL).
Peacekeeping operations against human trafficking and forced prostitution
Since the 1990s, UN people have been the target of numerous allegations of abuse - from rape and sexual abuse to pedophilia and human trafficking. Complaints came from Cambodia, East Timor and West Africa. First of all, peacekeeping operations were sent to Bosnia and Herzegovina. There, prostitution associated with women victims of trafficking soared to heaven and often acted right outside the gates of UN buildings.
David Lam, a regional human rights officer in Bosnia from 2000 to 2001, said: “The trafficking of sexual slaves is mainly due to the UN peacekeeping operation. Without it, tourists in the country would not be enough or, in general, forced prostitution would not exist. ” In addition, hearings held by the U.S. House of Agents in 2002 revealed that SPS members often visited Bosnian brothels and had sex with victims of trafficking and underage girls.
Correspondents witnessed a rapid increase in prostitution in Cambodia, Mozambique, Bosnia and Kosovo after the United Nations. And in the case of the latter 2 - NATO peacekeeping relics. In a UN study titled “The Impact of a Multi-armed Incident on a Child, ” conducted in 1996, the former first lady of Mozambique, Graça Machel, documented: “In 6 out of 12 country studies on the sexual exploitation of a child in times of armed conflict prepared for this report, the arrival of peacekeeping forces was coupled with a rapid increase in infant prostitution. Fortunately, the UN soon took action to eliminate this fact, which was very successful.
United Nations peacekeeping missions
Consent operations cover a range of different types of actions. In Fortna Page's book, peacemaking works best. For example, she identifies four different types of peacekeeping missions. It is important to note that these subjects of the missions and how they are conducted are strongly influenced by the mandate in which they are authorized.
Three of Fortna's four types are consent based operations. Therefore, they require the consent of the warring factions. And participants in peacekeeping operations must act strictly within the given framework. If they lose this consent, the military will be forced to retreat. The fourth mission, on the contrary, does not require harmony. If consent is lost at any time, this mission is not required to be withdrawn.
Kinds
Groups consisting of small contingents of military or civilian contemplators who are entrusted with monitoring the ceasefire, withdrawal of troops or other conditions are set out in a professional agreement, as a rule, are unarmed, and they are primarily instructed to observe and report on what is happening. Thus, they do not have the ability or mandate to intervene if either party refuses the agreement. Examples of monitoring missions include UNAVEM II in Angola in 1991 and MINURSO in Western Sahara.
Inter-mission missions, also known as traditional peacekeeping forces, are larger contingents of lightly armed forces designed to serve as a buffer between warring factions after the conflict. Thus, they are a zone between two parties and can monitor and report compliance with any of them. But only strictly according to the parameters established in this ceasefire agreement. Examples include UNAVEM III in Angola in 1994 and MINUGUA in Guatemala in 1996.
Multifaceted missions are carried out by military and police personnel. In them, they are trying to create reliable and comprehensive settlements. They not only act as observers or perform an inter-positional role, but also participate in more multifaceted tasks, such as election monitoring, police and security forces reform, institution building, economic development, and much more. Examples include UNTAG in Namibia, ONUSAL in El Salvador and ONUMOZ in Mozambique.
Peace enforcement missions, unlike previous ones, do not require the consent of the warring parties. These are multifaceted operations involving both civilian and military personnel. The combat forces are significant in size and are fairly well equipped with UN peacekeeping standards. They are authorized to use weapons not only for self-defense. Examples include ECOMOG and UNAMSIL in West Africa and Sierra Leone in 1999, as well as NATO operations in Bosnia - SAF and SFOR.
UN missions during and after the Cold War
During this period, the military was mainly of interpositional character. Therefore, such actions were called traditional peacekeeping. UN citizens were deployed after the interstate conflict to serve as a buffer between warring factions and to ensure compliance with the terms of the peace agreement. Missions were based on consent, and most often observers were not armed. This was the case with UNTSO in the Middle East and UNCIP in India and Pakistan. Others were armed - for example, UNEF-I, created during the Suez crisis. They have been largely successful in this role.
In the post-Cold War era, the United Nations took a more diverse and multifaceted approach to peacekeeping. In 1992, after the Cold War, then Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali prepared a report detailing his ambitious concepts for the United Nations and peacekeeping operations in general. The report, entitled “An Agenda for Accord, ” describes a multifaceted and interconnected package of measures that he hopes will lead to the effective use of the UN in its role in international politics after the end of the Cold War. This included the use of preventive diplomacy, peace enforcement, peacekeeping, maintaining harmony and post-conflict reconstruction.
