The basic concepts used by economic science, with a certain degree of simplification, are income and expenses. Their ratio forms other economic categories. For example, with respect to a single product, the costs of manufacturing and selling form the actual cost, which is laid down in the price of the goods along with the desired profit. Regarding the total turnover, the actual cost of sales reduces the income of the enterprise, leaving at its disposal gross profit. And now we’ll move from simplification to specifics: we’ll deal with such a multifaceted concept as cost.
The concept of cost in accounting policies
In Russian practice, there are 4 types of cost accounting in the enterprise, which differ in the purpose and specifics of the formation of the analytical cost base, namely:
- accounting;
- tax;
- managerial;
- statistical.
They are conducted at the enterprise at the same time, so it makes no sense to prioritize. Although, according to the criterion of punishment for improper execution, the most strictly regulated are tax and accounting types of accounting.
Accounting and tax accounting
In the framework of accounting, on the basis of PBU, the actual expenses of the enterprise are formed, its purpose is to accurately account for the costs summarized in the balance sheet. If the concept of “total cost of goods sold” is present in accounting, then tax accounting replaces it with a simple summation of the costs of the enterprise. Tax accounting involves the correct formation of the tax base for calculating corporate income tax. According to the tax code (chapter 25), in order to find a tax base, the amount of income of an enterprise can be reduced by the amount of expenses, with the exception of the list of costs presented in art. 270.
Managerial and statistical types of accounting
Management cost accounting is used for the purposes of the head of the enterprise. Depending on the tasks of the management, cost samples, cost accounting criteria, and cost formation parameters are changed. For example, in the framework of management accounting, you can track the cost of a new product, to decide on the feasibility of its further production and sale, you can monitor the work of a particular service in terms of cost-income ratio, or calculate the planned cost of the proposed project. In this case, the cost of sales, the formula for its calculation and the determination method will vary greatly.
Statistical accounting is necessary to study economic development trends for certain types of activities, it is based on accounting analytics and on reports of TEP of the enterprise.
"Costs", "costs", "costs" and their relationship with the cost
Costs are resources used in the activities of the enterprise, the value of which is expressed in monetary terms. They may relate to expenses if realized in the reporting period.
In accordance with the tax code, expenses are documented expenses of the enterprise incurred in the reporting period; they lead to a decrease in the organization’s income from core and other activities.
Costs are a concept of economic theory that is very close to costs. Costs are the costs of production and / or treatment, presented in cost terms. The summation of production costs and circulation forms the cost of sales, the formula for calculating which will be discussed later.
Linking costs to the reporting period and their relationship with income makes them the basis for the formation of cost. Therefore, we will continue to operate with the concept of "expenses", allowing the use of other concepts as synonyms.
In order to calculate the cost, it is necessary to carry out an economically reasonable grouping of expenses according to the selected classification criterion.
Cost of business items
The formation of the cost of economic elements is an enlarged grouping of homogeneous expenses, more indivisible and independent of their place of occurrence. These include the following groups of expenses:
- material (R M);
- labor remuneration (R OT);
- social deductions (R СО);
- depreciation (A);
- other (R PR).
When summing the costs of economic elements formed the cost. The calculation formula will be as follows: С РП = Р М + Р ОТ + Р СО + А + РП.
By the specific weight of a particular group of expenses in the overall structure, we can conclude about the nature of production. For example, with a high share of labor costs and related social contributions, an enterprise is engaged in a labor-intensive type of activity.
Cost of expenses
Structuring of expenses by articles involves accounting for heterogeneous costs, while a separate costing item may include several economic elements. A typical nomenclature consists of the following consumable items:
1. Workshop costs (R C), which form the workshop cost (C C):
- Materials and raw materials.
- PHOT of the main workers.
- Social deductions for payroll.
- Expenses for operation and maintenance (repair) of equipment.
- Energy and fuel for technological purposes.
- Expenses for the preparation of production, its development.
- Compulsory property insurance.
- Depreciation.
- Other shop expenses.
2. General production costs (R OP), which are added to the shop. As a result, the production cost of sales (C PP) is formed:
- Losses from marriage.
- Other general business expenses.
3. Non-manufacturing costs (R VP):
- The cost of packaging.
- Delivery.
- Scientific and technical developments.
- Personnel training.
- Other non-manufacturing expenses.
4. Selling expenses (R K).
According to the specified articles of the calculation of the cost is formed. The calculation formula will look like: With RP = R C + R OP + R VP + R K.
Cost types
Based on the methods of grouping costs, there are several types of cost.
- Workshop cost calculates all the costs of the workshop associated with the production of products, namely labor remuneration, deductions for the maintenance of equipment, materials and energy, management workshop expenses.
- Production cost is the summation of the costs of production of this type of product, taking into account the cost of the workshop and general production costs.
- Commercial (full) cost is the cost of sales of finished products, including all possible costs for the full life cycle of a product for production and marketing.
Costing methodology
There are several methods of cost accounting and costing.
- Cost accounting at actual cost - based on accurate accounting of the actual costs of the enterprise.
- Cost accounting at normative cost - the method is relevant for mass and mass production, which are characterized by uniform repetitive operations, the cost is formed in accordance with the standards and norms adopted by the enterprise. An analogue of this method is the foreign standard-cost.
- Cost accounting at planned cost - is used for planning, based on forecasted figures, which are calculated on the basis of actual data using forecast coefficients, proposals of suppliers, results of expert evaluation.
Cost in formulas
A) Determine the cost of sales, the formula for its calculation is as follows:
С РП = С ПП + Р ВП + Р К - О NP, where all indicators in value terms:
- With RP - the cost of sales;
- With PP - the full production cost;
- R VP - non-manufacturing costs;
- R K - selling expenses;
- About NP - unsold products.
B) Given the volume of sales (O RP), you can find the cost per unit of goods. To do this, divide the entire cost by volume (Task No. 1):
With ED = With RP: About RP.
C) For analytical purposes, relative indicators are used (Task No. 2):
Margin profit margin (N MP), which shows the ratio of variable and fixed costs at the enterprise, it is calculated by the formula:
N MP = (P M / V) ´ 100%, where
- P M - marginal profit;
- In - revenue from sales of goods.
The cost price of goods sold (relates to operating costs), shows the share of costs in revenue and allows you to evaluate the reasons for the decrease in profit from the sale of goods, it is determined by the formula:
To PSA = (With RP / V) ´ 100%.
The profitability threshold (or breakeven of production) shows at what volume of production the costs are recouped, it is calculated as follows:
TB = R POST / (C - R PER.ED), where
- TB - breakeven point;
- R POST - fixed costs for the entire volume of production;
- R PER.ED - variable costs per unit of output;
- C is the price of the goods.
Task number 1 to determine the production cost per unit of goods
We calculate the total production cost of a liter of juice. For the calculation we will use the following data.
1. Direct costs, thousand rubles:
- material (concentrate) - 2500,
- labor - 70.
2. Overhead of production, thousand rubles - 2600.
3. During the reporting period, juice concentrate was used, thousand liters - 130.
4. Juice production technology involves the loss of concentrate up to 3%, while the proportion of concentrate in the finished product is not more than 20%.
Solution progress:
1. Summarizing all costs, we get the cost of sales, thousand rubles:
2500 + 70 + 2600 = 5170.
2. Find the volume of finished juice in physical terms, taking into account technological losses, thousand liters:
130.0 - 3% = 126.1
126.1 * 100% / 20% = 630.5.
3. Calculate the cost of production of a liter of juice, rubles:
5170 / 630.5 = 8.2.
