The vast expanses of this rocky edge give the impression of coldness and hostility, but only by looking closely you can appreciate their pristine beauty. Mongolia is a state with a very vivid history and great heritage, which at one time managed to conquer the territories of many peoples, which were significantly ahead of its development. The Tanguts and Chinese, Khitan and Jurchen, Koreans and Tibetans, Turks and Persians, the peoples of Transcaucasia, Russians, Hungarians, Poles and others obeyed him. In less than 80 years, the Mongols seized lands from the Pacific Ocean to the Danube, but later they themselves became the cause of their own defeat.
Homeland of nomads
The state, which today is known as Mongolia, was the birthplace of nomadic tribes long before the world became acquainted with the Mongols. It is located in the steppe zone of the Northern Hemisphere, which stretches from Hungary to Manchuria, where from the south it is bordered by the desert plateau of Ordos and the lands of China (Henan Province) in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. The territory of the Mongolian state is divided into three regions: the northern one is adjacent to the Sayans, Altai and the mountain ranges near Lake Baikal; the central one covers the hot Gobi desert; the southern region is a flat terrain crossed by two small mountain ranges to the north of the Yellow River.
With the exception of the extreme northern regions, the climate of Mongolia is very arid, and the winter and summer temperatures have a rather large difference. It is assumed that it is precisely the climatic conditions of North-West Asia that caused the formation of the Mongoloid type, which later scattered over many other regions.
The emergence of the Mongol state
According to some historians, the nomadic places of the Mongol tribes of the 7th-9th centuries passed along the southern bank of the Amur River or in the lower reaches of the Argun and Shilka rivers. By the X-XI century, they began a gradual migration to the west, to the Khalkhi region, expelling the Turkic-speaking peoples living there. In the middle of the XII century, according to the “Secret History of the Mongols”, the first Mongol state was formed - Hamag Mongol ulus (State of all Mongols) - from the united 27 tribes of the Nirun-Mongols, among which the clans of Chiad-Borjigins and Taijiuts occupied a leading position. Around 1160, the state collapsed as a result of the internal struggle for power. There were also Darlekin-Mongol tribes that were not part of the Hamag Mongol, they lived in areas near the Three Rivers.
As such, the history of the Mongolian state dates back to the 13th century, when, under the leadership of Temuchin, the Mongol tribes merged between Manchuria and the Altai Mountains. By uniting his supporters, the son of Yesugei managed to conquer the most powerful tribal unions on the Mongolian lands: Tatar in the east (1202), Kereit tribes in Central Mongolia (1203) and the association of Naimans in the west (1204). At the congress of the Mongol nobility in 1206, Temuchin was declared the khan of all Mongolia and received the title of Genghis Khan. At the same congress, the structure of the young state and its laws were determined.
Organization and device
The newly made ruler carried out radical transformations to strengthen the centralized system of government and to suppress all forms of manifestation of separatism. Nomads were divided into groups of “ten”, “hundred” and “thousand” people, who in the war period instantly became warriors. Khan issued a code of laws (Yasa), which addressed all issues of the state mechanism and social system. Those responsible for any violations, even minor ones, were severely punished in the Mongolian state. Genghis Khan, in order to strengthen his dynasty, distributed large tracts of land to his immediate relatives and associates. The Khan's personal guard was also formed.
In the sphere of culture of the Mongol tribes, serious changes took place. General Mongolian writing appeared only at the beginning of the XIII century, but already by 1240 the famous historiographic monument “The Secret Legend of the Mongols” was compiled. Under the rule of Genghis Khan, the capital of the empire was erected - Karakoram, a city that became the focus of trade and craft.
Invincible army
The Mongolian state has chosen the path of aggressive aggressive politics as the main means of easy enrichment and meeting the growing needs of the nomadic aristocracy. The success of subsequent military campaigns was well contributed by organizational strength and a technically equipped mobile army, led by skilled generals.
In 1211, the army of Genghis Khan went to China, as a result of 90 cities fell, and by 1215 the capital Yanjing (modern Beijing) was captured. In 1218-1221 the Mongols moved to Turkestan, conquered Semirechye, Samarkand and other centers of Central Asia. In 1223, they reached the Crimea, Transcaucasia, captured part of Georgia and Azerbaijan, and after defeating the Alans they marched in the Polovtsian steppes, where they won the Kalki River over the combined Russian-Polovtsian army.
Towards the end of Genghis Khan's life, the Mongol Empire included: Northern China (Jin Empire), East Turkestan, Central Asia, lands from the Irtysh to the Volga, the northern regions of Iran and part of the Caucasus.
The invasion of Russia
The predatory campaigns of the conquerors turned the once blooming lands into deserts and had devastating consequences for the defeated peoples, including in Russia. The Mongolian state, heading for Western Europe, devastated the Volga-Kama Bulgaria in the fall of 1236, and in December 1237 its troops invaded the Principality of Ryazan.
The next target of the Mongol invasion was the Principality of Vladimir. The troops of Batu (the grandson of Genghis Khan) defeated the prince’s squad in Kolomna, after which Moscow was burned. In early February 1238, they launched a siege of Vladimir, and five days later the city fell. On March 4, 1238, Prince Vladimir Yury Vsevolodovich was brutally defeated on the City River, and the Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal was destroyed. Then the Mongols moved to Novgorod, unexpectedly encountering a desperate two-week resistance in the town of Torzhok. However, before reaching the glorious city of a hundred miles, the troops of Batu turned back. What prompted them to make this decision is still unknown.
The Mongol invasion of South Russia is celebrated in the early spring of 1239. The city of Pereslavl was taken in March, Chernigov fell in October, and in the early fall of 1240, the advanced troops of Batu besieged Kiev. For three months, the Kievans were able to restrain the onslaught of the Mongols, but due to the huge losses of the defenders, they were still able to capture the city. By the spring of 1241, the Mongol army was on the verge of Europe, but, being bloodless, was forced to return to the Lower Volga.
Collapse of the empire
An important feature of the Mongolian state was that it was kept exclusively with the help of military force, which made the entire formation unstable, since the large size of the state did not allow its numerous provinces to be controlled. Meanwhile, the great conquests could not continue indefinitely, human and organizational resources were exhausted, the offensive fervor of the Mongolian troops began to fade. The fierce resistance of Europe, the Middle East and Japan forced the khans to abandon the implementation of ambitious goals (world domination).
Beginning in the second half of the 13th century, the descendants of Genghis Khan, who ruled certain uluses, began to weaken the empire in their internecine wars, which contributed to fomenting separatist sentiments. As a result, the endless struggle led to the loss of control over the conquered lands. Towards the end of the 14th century, the great empire ceased to exist, and a period of feudal fragmentation began in the history of Mongolia.
Legacy for the world
Considering the role of the Mongolian state in world history, it will be fair to state not only the destructive consequences of its domination, but also the creative moments. The global conquest contributed to large-scale migration processes, religious and cultural contacts, the formation of fashion and new tastes, the emergence of the idea of cosmopolitanism. But the most important thing was that the Mongols closed the chain of interethnic trade ties into a single ensemble of sea and land routes. Thus, in the second half of the 13th century, Marco Polo could safely pass the imperial roads and get a job in Kublaihan. Through travelers like him, knowledge, science, art, various products and new inventions (gunpowder, compass, printing press) came to the West, which subsequently played a huge role in the development of European civilization.
With the collapse of the empire, relations between East and West began to decline. Only by the 15th century trade could resume: European mariners discovered a new sea route to the East.
